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Word learning biases
Word learning biases are certain biases or assumptions that allow children to quickly rule out unlikely alternatives in order to effectively process and learn word meanings. They begin to manifest themselves around 18 months, when children begin to rapidly expand their vocabulary. These biases are important for children with limited processing abilities if they are to be successful in word learning.〔Markman, E. M. (1991). The whole-object, taxonomic, and mutual exclusivity assumptions as initial constraints on word meanings. In S. A. Gelman, J. P. Byrnes, S. A. Gelman, J. P. Byrnes (Eds.) , ''Perspectives on Language and Thought: Interrelations in Development'' (pp. 72-106). New York, NY US: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37497-9〕 The guiding lexical principles have been defined as implicit and explicit strategies towards language acquisition.〔Mervis, C. B., & Bertrand, J. (1994). Acquisition of the Novel Name-Nameless Category (N3C) principle. Child Development, 65(6), 1646-1662. doi:10.2307/1131285〕 When a child learns a new word they must decide whether the word refers to the whole object, part of the object, its substance, color or texture. The following sources are used to solve this indeterminacy problem.
==Whole-object bias==
Whole object bias, in developmental psychology, For example, if a child is shown and given the label "truck", the child will assume truck refers to the whole object instead of the tires, doors, colors or other parts. If a researcher points to an object while simultaneously saying a new name, children will assume that the new label refers to the whole object.〔Hansen, M. B., & Markman, E. M. (2009). Children's use of mutual exclusivity to learn labels for parts of objects. Developmental Psychology, 45(2), 592-596. doi:10.1037/a0014838〕 Ellen Markman pioneered work in this field. Her studies suggest that even in cases where color or a dynamic activity are made salient to children, they will still interpret the new word as a label for whole objects. Furthermore, infants hold a primitive theory of the physical world that is guided by three constraints on the behavior of physical bodies: objects must move as wholes, objects move independently of each other, and objects move on connected paths. It is suggested that these three constraints help guide children’s interpretations of scenes, and, in turn, explains how the whole object bias reflects the nonlinguistic status of objects.〔Constraints on Word Learning: Speculations About Their Nature, Origins, and Domain Specificity. In M. R. Gunnar, M. Maratsos, M. R. Gunnar, M. Maratsos (Eds.) , ''Modularity and Constraints in Language and Cognition'' (pp. 59-101). Hillsdale, NJ England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, ISBN 0-8058-1175-3〕 Criticisms of the whole object bias highlight that evidence is only provided for children 18 months and older, a restricted set of stimuli has been used that possibly favors a “whole” interpretation, and finally, the whole object bias serves more as an explanation rather than a description.〔Hollich, G., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2007). Young children associate novel words with complex objects rather than salient parts. Developmental Psychology, 43(5), 1051-1061. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.5.1051〕 A more current study strengthened the breadth of ages and stimuli conditions under which this bias occurs. As early as 12 months of age infants can associate words with whole objects when the objects can be viewed as two separate objects and even when one of the parts is made salient.〔 The whole object bias findings have been replicated with adults as well. Even when participants, 18–36 years of age, were instructed that they would be tested more frequently for parts, they were better able to recognize the whole objects rather than parts. These findings support the hypothesis that there is a bias to encode the overall shape of the stimuli in working memory rather than individual details.〔Patterson, M. D., Bly, B., Porcelli, A. J., & Rypma, B. (2007) Visual working memory for global, object, and part-based information. Memory & Cognition, 35(4), 738-751.〕 The whole object constraint can be overcome in order for children to learn the labels of parts, substances and other properties of objects. This is done through the mutual exclusivity bias, which makes the assumption that each object has only one label.〔〔Merriman, W. E., & Stevenson, C. M. (1997). Restricting a familiar name in response to learning a new one: Evidence for the mutual exclusivity bias in young two-year-olds. Child Development, 68(2), 211-228. doi:10.2307/1131846〕
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